Appendix for IOKASTE: Our Research

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Reality and Myth

Thebes

The area now known as Thebes has been occupied since the Early Bronze Age (2800 - 1900 B.C.), as evidenced by the architectural remains of two large buildings. As the site has been constantly inhabited, its ruins are not generally well preserved; over the millennia locals have naturally preferred to help themselves to stones from an old wall nearby rather trouble themselves with hewing out and hauling blocks of granite from a mountain 5.5 kilometers away. And, proud as modern Thebans may be of their history and pre-history, they do not like to have their homes razed for the sake of research, making the reconstruction of the past more difficult.

Nevertheless, there is a lot one can learn - or guess - from visiting Thebes today. Although some of the landscape has changed - for example, the lakes to the north of the city have been drained, with the resulting fields now used to grow crops such as cotton - one can still see the hills and the shape of the ancient city. The land's contours show where the streams flowed, and where Amphion's walls probably stood. A very few pieces of wall remain, as do remnants of Apollo's temple on the hill of Ismenion beyond what we have called the Eudoxa Gate.

The story of how Kadmos founded the city cannot be literally true. People lived in Thebes before he would have arrived; and, after all, men do not grow from serpent's teeth. But Kadmos could have been a foreign prince who conquered and expanded an existing city. Local legend specifies where the cow he was following on the advice of the Delphic oracle collapsed, on a hill just west of the current town, as well as the location of the spring guarded by Ares' serpent. The central ruins, where the remains of the palace and the agora can be found, are known as the "Kadmeia" to this day.

This area, with its springs and fertile surrounding fields, was a natural place for a city. The hills were suited to grapes; myth says that Dionysos, god of wine, was born to one of Kadmos' daughters. Wheat and barley were also cultivated. And Thebes' hills supported herds of sheep and cattle; in fact, Thebes is part of the area known as Boeotia, "land of cattle."

Legend tells us that Thebes had seven gates, named for the seven daughters of Amphion and Niobe. Though some scholars argue that seven would have been too many to defend, we decided to stay true to the myth. We relied upon a map from the Archaeological Museum at Thebes to suggest where the seven gates were, but this map generally associates these locations with other names, from a later era. Thus we took the liberty, when necessary, of assigning the girls' names to the gates ourselves.

Other locations in and around Thebes echo parts of the legend - sometimes contributing to our story, at other times contradicting it. For example, according to the best-known version of the myth, the ill-fated encounter of Laius and Oedipus occurred near Delphi. But there is another crossroads just outside Thebes where this meeting is also said to have taken place. We used the more familiar version, but symbolically incorporated the spring outside Thebes where Oedipus allegedly washed away Laius' blood.

The Late Bronze Age

Many scholars believe that the Homeric epics describe, although with embroidery and distortion, the civilization that flourished in the Mediterranean millennia ago. Study of the evidence dates the Trojan War to approximately 1250 BC. Taking this date as a fixed point, and combining it with the archaeological research done at Thebes, we constructed a hypothetical timeline for the Theban myth cycle. Different parts of the legend often contradict one another, by presenting impossible family relationships or timing of events; in these cases we have chosen what seemed reasonable to us, or convenient for the story. We have placed the start of this novel at about 1300 BC, during the Late Bronze Age - a period in Greece also known as the Mycenaean Age, in honor of Mycenae and its magnificent ruins. Readers familiar with the classical Greece of the 400s BC - Sophocles, Socrates, Pericles, Plato - should understand that we are writing about a much earlier, and very different, period.

Names and Writing

Although some stories credit Kadmos with bringing a version of the alphabet to Thebes, that seems unlikely. Linear B is the name given to the script found on clay tablets and shards of that time period. It is a syllabary, in which the individual symbols represent syllables rather than phonemes, as with our Roman alphabet, or concepts, as with Chinese ideograms. Brilliant detective work has shown that Linear B corresponds to an early form of the Greek language.

Most of the tablets recovered represent administrative data: tallies of taxes, offerings to gods, census information, inventories and so forth. No record of Mycenaean history, literature, or diplomatic correspondence has yet been found.

The Linear B tablets show a sophisticated society, with a specialized labor force that included grain-grinders, bath-attendants, housemaids, textile workers, jewelers, potters, carpenters, armorers, smiths, and so on. Literacy was probably limited, with scribes or clerks doing most of the reading and writing. As administration of goods was a key responsibility of the upper classes, it seems likely they had some level of literacy, and we have chosen to portray matters so.

Incidentally, as the language of our characters was Greek, we have generally opted for a more direct transliteration from today's Greek alphabet to our own Roman characters. So instead of Jocasta we write Iokaste; instead of Creon, Kreon. However, in some cases we did not want to render familiar names completely unfamiliar (Oidipous instead of Oedipus) and in others we have kept what we felt to be a more "aesthetic" spelling. In short, we have pleased ourselves in the matter of spelling.

Art and Architecture

Mycenaean art tended to be restrained and dignified in style. Fine jewelry, pottery, wall-paintings, and small figurines in terracotta, ivory, stone, and bronze survive. Large-scale sculpture in the round or in relief was uncommon, but there are some exceptions, such as the famous Lion Gate at Mycenae.

The Mycenaean palaces were heavily fortified. They featured a standardized architecture, centered on the megaron or throne room. Palaces were typically two-story, flat-roofed buildings and featured open courtyards, wooden supporting columns, and ornamental gateways. Storage rooms and workrooms would likely be incorporated into the palace. Bathrooms were another feature, with tubs of stone or terracotta. Buildings were constructed so as to allow a free flow of air, important in the warm Greek climate.

At Thebes, limestone was the main stone material for building. Fragments of painted plaster depicting a procession of maidens have been found; other likely scenes include gardens, battles, landscapes and seascapes. The floors might have been tiled or stuccoed in such a way as to resemble tiling, the individual squares painted in varying herringbone or zigzag patterns. Furniture such as tables, chairs, and stools of the time was often carved or inlaid with ivory, shell, or precious metal. To the modern eye the palace would have been a riot of design and color.

Trade

There is no evidence of coinage or any monetary standard in Mycenaean times. But clearly trade was going on, probably through a barter system and along well-established trade routes. In non-monetary economies, trade is often controlled by the rulers and in our story we have represented it largely so, with Kreon often responsible for overseeing trade and the apportionment of goods.

The Greek mainland exported metal vessels and pottery, likely containing olive oil, perfume, wine, and other goods. Crete produced fine artworks, timber, and textiles. Pottery and copper ingots were available from Cyprus. The various islands were a source of shell, obsidian, silver, and metalwork. Egypt exported linen, ebony, gold, alabaster, ostrich eggs, amethyst, ivory, scarab seals, stone and faience (fused glass) ornaments and vessels. Tin, copper, amber, and lapis came from Asia Minor. We have extrapolated a grain-trade with Egypt, given the agricultural richness of the lands along the Nile and the relatively poor and rocky soil of Greece, although the distances involved might have posed a challenge.

Agriculture and the Wild

During the Bronze Age, the Greek lands were full of wildlife and trees. Millennia of deforestation have taken their toll. It is even possible that the climate was wetter, if not cooler, than it is today; certainly the forests conserved the rainfall better.

Archaeological evidence indicates that hulled wheat and barley were the major grain crops of the Mycenaeans. Millet may also have been grown. Grain was no doubt ground and baked into breads and cakes; in addition, grain pastes resembling hummus or porridge would likely have been a major part of the common people's diet.

With respect to fruits and vegetables, olives and grapes held preeminence. Figs and pomegranates would have grown locally, and dried dates may have been imported. Garlic, onions, turnips, and radishes were probably cultivated, as well as bitter vetch. Finding evidence of green vegetables other than celery is difficult, but is possible that any evidence, highly perishable, simply did not survive the millennia. Mushrooms, some of the hallucinogenic variety, were known - in fact Mycenae may have been named for a mushroom (myketa).

Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated, as well as horses, oxen, and mules. Chicken and perhaps geese may also have been kept. No evidence for cats has been found, but dogs were kept as hunting-companions. With respect to game, the Mycenaeans would have hunted deer, wild ass, boar, hare, and perhaps bear. Wild animals posed more of a threat in those days: wild boar could damage crops and injure people, and lions still roamed the countryside. Game birds included ducks, geese, peacocks, pheasants, partridges, thrush, and quail. Fishing would have been important, the catch including all sorts of fish and shellfish. Of course, at inland Thebes, seafood would have been less readily available. Besides meat and fish, the Mycenaean diet added protein from many other sources: peas, lentils, beans, lupine seeds, and other legumes; beechnuts and walnuts; eggs, milk, and cheese.

To add spice and flavor to their meals, the Mycenaeans cultivated or gathered fennel, dill, coriander, celery seed, cumin, mustard, poppy-seed, sesame, and mint. Salt could readily be had from the sea. There is evidence of bee-keeping, and honey might have been added to food or wine.

The best wines came from the islands of Chios and Lesbos, and wine was almost always drunk with water; in classical times, taking one's wine neat was the mark of a drunkard. This is more understandable when one considers that the ancient vintages might become very thick, almost syrupy, if aged for a long time

Clothing

Well-to-do women in Mycenaean Greece wore cascading multi-tiered skirts dyed in many bright colors. These skirts were cinched tightly at the waist, and a curved apron reaching from the waist to about knee-level might be worn as the top layer. The upper body was clothed in a tightly fitted short-sleeved jacket, whose plunging neckline left the breasts entirely bare. The whole effect emphasized the ideal hourglass-shaped feminine figure. While the primary fabrics in use were wool and linen, the apparent stiffness and corset-styling of the jacket suggests it may have been made of leather. All these garments would likely have been embroidered and perhaps decorated with bead-work. They may also have been sewn with gold "rondels," coin-sized spangles of gold, generally stamped with a decorative design, which have been found in abundance. Although the purpose of these ornaments is not entirely certain, we have shown Iokaste and Antigone planning to sew them like sequins onto Antigone's wedding garb. A cloak might be worn over this ensemble, and some of the wall-paintings indicate a short cloak just covering the breasts.

Feminine coiffures were elaborate, cascading curls interwoven with gold bands, ribbons, and strings of beads. Women wore makeup to emphasize their eyes, cheeks, and lips, and appear to have rouged their ears. While men were often depicted as sporting a tan, pale skin seems to have been the mark of a lady, and she might use a parasol-type sunshade to protect her complexion.

Beautiful jewelry of gold and agate, lapis, amethyst, and blue enamel has been found - primarily rings, bracelets, necklaces, and pins; while earrings were common in the islands, they remained almost unknown on the mainland. The cloak-pins or fibulae which feature so prominently in our story were large items resembling safety-pins, made of gold, silver, or bronze and elaborately decorated. Straight pins also survive, sometimes featuring heads of rock crystal or other jewels. Carved seal-rings and sealing-stones shaped like cylinders or lozenges have also been found.

Mycenaean men were sometimes clean-shaven but often bearded, the style frequently depicted as a bearded chin and shaved upper lip. They seem to have generally favored short hair; sometimes the paintings suggest longer hair pulled back into a club. Men depicted in Mycenaean artwork are generally bare-chested and often wear kilts of varying length, knee-length being typical. Tunics and cloaks were also worn.

When dressing for war, the Mycenaean soldier donned his helmet tiled in boar's teeth, with leather or metal cheek-pieces. Most body-armor was probably made of leather or several layers of heavy linen, perhaps reinforced with metal fittings. Shields were typically covered in oxhide and very large, stretching shoulder-to-knee or more. The warrior might carry a dagger and a sword or spear, and march on foot or ride in a two-wheeled chariot. The day of the mounted cavalryman lay far in the future: Greek horses at the time were small creatures, more like a modern pony, unsuited to riding.

Women

The role of women in Mycenaean times seems to have been much more prominent than in classical Greece. While in the fifth century BC women were cloistered and essentially uneducated (except for high-class prostitutes, the hetaerae), the queens from the earlier age are major figures in mythology: educated, willful, making decisions of their own. Women are prominently depicted in Mycenaean wall paintings and sculpture.

There is evidence that the cult of the Mother Goddess preceded the religion of the Olympian gods (see below), and that the early society of Greece may have been matrilineal - the king may have even been a figurehead whose life was forfeit at harvest-time. We have chosen to interpret these woman-centric customs as pertaining to an earlier era, several generations before our characters enter the stage but still having residual influence on their traditions.

Since the Mycenaean archaeological records tell us little of their rituals, we have felt generally free to make up our own, often basing them on later Greek traditions. For example, we invented the ritual questions of the marriage ceremony, but overall it is not unlike those of Classical Greece, with a procession to the new bridegroom's house and plenty of ribaldry afterward.

Birthing-chairs have been used in various cultures, and while they are not attested for Mycenaean civilization we thought it reasonable to include them. Exposure of unwanted infants such as the newborn Oedipus may seem barbaric, but it was certainly practiced even until classical times.

Myth and Myth

In examining the stories about the Greek gods and heroes, we often found many different versions of a story. A few words below explain some of the reasons behind our choices.

Sophocles & the Oedipus trilogy

The most well-known version of the Oedipus tale, Oedipus Rex, was written by Sophocles, c. 429 BC. As the title of his play indicates, Sophocles focused on the experiences of Oedipus the King; his Iokaste plays a minor role, and says little to reveal her own experience. But we believe Iokaste's perspective to be the most interesting of all, as she was present for far more of the story. Because Sophocles wrote his play nearly a millennium after the alleged events, we do not consider his portrayal of her to be definitive.

Niobe

Many readers will be familiar with the myth in which Niobe insulted Leto, the mother of the twin gods Apollo and Artemis. Apollo and Artemis then slew the fourteen children of Niobe, who filled a well with her tears of grief. A lesser-known version of the myth asserts that one of Niobe's daughters survived; the remaining princess was so terrified by the death of her brothers and sisters that she turned as pale as a ghost, and was known from then on as "Chloris," meaning "white".

Amphion

Amphion was credited, along with his twin brother Zethos, with fortifying Thebes. Amphion, who was supposed to have learned the lyre from the god Hermes, and according to some improved the instrument by adding three more strings to give it a total of seven, played music so magical that even stones danced to his song and moved by themselves into place to form the city walls. Unfortunately the less gifted Zethos had to work with more conventional means.

Pelops

Niobe's brother King Pelops, for whom the Peloponnesian peninsula is named, was definitely a man of power. Legend ascribes many accomplishments to him, including holding the first Olympic Games - although most sources give a much later date, 776 BC, as their founding, and still others assert that the games were already a tradition when Pelops came to power. Was Pelops as powerful as we have made him out to be? We do not know, but the myths suggest he must have played a vital role in the politics of the time.

Maenads

According to legend, the Maenads were female devotees of the wine-god Dionysus; in our story, we have expanded the definition of the cult to allow for male members. They were known for rampaging through fields, wild revelry, unbridled sexuality, and sometimes dangerous madness. Given their behavior, and their reports of flying to India and back in a single night, substance abuse seems likely. Classical vase-paintings show Maenads carrying an ivy-twined, pine-cone tipped staff called a thrysus. They occasionally wore animal skins, and were portrayed in artwork in the company of lustful satyrs.

Given their association with Thebes, their dangerous female-oriented nature, and the different stories in which the Maenads and the Sphinx destroy the fields, we took the liberty of linking them. There is even a connection between Maenads and riddles: according to Graves, "The murder of Hippasus is annually atoned at Orchomenus, in a feast called Agrionia ('provocation to savagery'), when the women devotees pretend to seek Dionysus and then, having agreed that he must be away with the Muses, sit in a circle and ask riddles, until the priest of Dionysus rushes from his temple, with a sword, and kills the one whom he first catches."

The Sphinx

We found many versions of the story of the Sphinx, most of which were difficult to transform into something plausible. One tale associates her with pirates, but as Thebes is inland, pirates seem improbable. Another has her attack travelers in a pass between two mountains north of the city. Given the geography of the time - the lakes, for example, would have restricted travelers' routes far more than today - this version may be the most likely, but would have been difficult to incorporate into our story. A third version of the tale, most familiar to readers, is that she kept Thebes imprisoned until Oedipus arrived. We selected this version of the myth, but combined it with an alliance with the Maenads and a contest to select a suitor.

The Tiresias

According to legend, the prophet Tiresias lived for many generations, and spent a number of years as a woman. We allowed for this by making "Tiresias" a ceremonial title, with different people fulfilling the seer's role.

The Gods

Dating the worship of the various gods is difficult, as different cults appeared at different times in different places. There is archaeological evidence for the worship of some, but not all, of the Olympian gods in the Mycenaean period: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Artemis, Hermes, and Dionysus. There is also some evidence for Athena, while Aphrodite and Demeter could have been aspects of the more ancient Mother Goddess cult. It's not clear whether Hephaestus, Hades, Ares, and Apollo were worshipped in Mycenaean times.

However, the myths of classical times associate these gods with the earlier period so strongly that we have chosen to include the Olympian gods in our story rather than restrict ourselves to only those which can be found in the Linear B tablets. Apollo, for example, plays such an enormous part in all the legends that we gave his worship an important role.

The People of the Myth

In modern Thebes one can stroll along streets named for Iokaste, Amphion, Oedipus and Antigone. To the north of the city there is a hill named for Amphion, where some graves have been found. Ancient royal tombs, associated with the twin sons of Oedipus and Iokaste, lie east of the city.

Did Iokaste and Oedipus exist? Did a man of Bronze Age Thebes, after an exile of twenty or so years, really kill his father and marry his mother?

We do not know; no one can know. But if it did not actually happen, then how did the story come into being? One theory makes Oedipus out to be a foreign prince, who killed the king and married his widow. Then, in order to improve his claim to the throne of Thebes, he asserted that he was the son of the dead king - although this assertion made him guilty of parricide and incest.

Whether or not the story was true, once told, it was too juicy to forget. We hope that you, the readers, find this newest offering, Iokaste, acceptable.